Boreal Forest
The boreal forest (separate from the subalpine forest) is commonly referred to as taiga (a Russian term), or northern coniferous forest.
From: Encyclopedia of Forest Sciences , 2004
Boreal Forest
D.L. DeAngelis , in Encyclopedia of Ecology, 2008
The boreal forest, or taiga, occupies large regions of both North America and Asia between temperate forest and tundra. These regions are characterized by harsh winters, but water is not usually limiting. Plant biodiversity is far smaller than that of the temperate forest, with the tree community being dominated by a small number of coniferous species. Faunal biodiversity is also smaller than that of the temperate forest, but the taiga supports large numbers of breeding birds during the summer. The boreal forest holds the largest pool of living biomass of the terrestrial surface. It is thought to be a net sink for carbon at present, but global climate change could affect the balance of carbon fluxes.
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Volume 3
Lee E. Frelich , in Encyclopedia of the World's Biomes, 2020
Synopsis
Boreal forests, or taiga, are the Earth's northernmost forests, covering vast tracts of land across Alaska, Canada, northern Europe, and Russia. They are among the world's leading purveyors of ecosystem services, including carbon storage and clean water, and they harbor globally significant wildlife populations. The conifers spruce, fir, pine and larch dominate boreal forests along with birch and aspen. Boreal forests are flammable, and large fires which renew forest health and regulate their value as wildlife habitat are common. Although large tracts of unlogged, primeval forest are still present, unsupervised logging, mining, oil extraction and climate change pose threats to boreal forests.
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Ural Mountains Taiga
Lee E. Frelich , Timo Kuuluvainen , in Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences, 2021
Introduction
Taiga (also known as boreal forest) is the northernmost and coldest forest on earth, dominated by species of evergreen conifers spruce, fir and pine, the deciduous conifer larch, and species of birch and aspen. It occurs in vast tracts across Alaska, Canada, Scandinavia, Russia and northeastern China. Although these forests have survived relatively intact under the influence of indigenous peoples for thousands of years, in recent decades clearcutting, road building, dams, mining and fossil fuel extraction have led to loss of huge swaths of primary (also referred to as primeval or virgin forest that has no evidence of past harvesting of timber products) taiga to provide the needs of a growing human population. However, some intact primary taiga forests still remain, including taiga in the Ural Mountains of Russia. This world-renowned jewel of nature has unparalleled natural resources including incredibly diverse ecosystems on physiographically and climatically varied terrain, vast water and wildlife resources, and the largest remaining primary forest in Europe—the Virgin Komi Forest. However, it also has mineral, fossil fuel, and timber resources that put its conservation in conflict with resource extraction, and it is threatened by potentially large impacts of climate change. In this article we explore the Ural Mountains, their physiography, ecology, nature reserves, threats to conservation, and conservation strategies, with emphasis on the taiga forest.
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TEMPERATE AND MEDITERRANEAN FORESTS | Subalpine and Boreal Forests
N.A. Balliet , C.D.B. Hawkins , in Encyclopedia of Forest Sciences, 2004
Pollution and climate change
The boreal forests of eastern North America and Europe have been severely impacted by acid deposition (i.e., acid rain). Acid rain acidifies the soil which makes it toxic to plant roots, leaving the trees more susceptible to damage from insects and disease.
As discussed for subalpine forests, global climate change may also have serious implications for boreal forests. Change may result in a northward latitudinal shift in species ranges. However, in some areas, barriers such as urban areas may limit migration. The increase in temperature could enhance soil respiration and accelerate carbon emissions from the vast stored pool of the boreal forest.
Changes in temperature and precipitation will also have an impact on disturbance mechanisms such as insects, drought, and fire, influencing their occurrence, timing, frequency, duration, extent, and intensity. For example, extended periods of drought may result in fires burning more frequently, over larger areas, and at higher intensity, further reducing carbon storage in the boreal forest.
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Decomposition and Mineralization☆
L. Wang , P. D'Odorico , in Encyclopedia of Ecology (Second Edition), 2013
Boreal Forests
Boreal forests are among the best studied ecosystems in terms of litter decomposition and mineralization. In these forests – and in forest ecosystems in general – litterfall is the largest source of soil organic material, in that it can account for more than 50% of Net Primary Productivity (NPP). Due to the low energy environment (low temperature and solar radiation), litter decomposition in boreal forests is slow. In these environments the initial leaching from leaf litter is generally slow, while microbial degradation is the major decomposition process. The chemical changes of litter biomass in boreal forests have been well documented. The concentrations of N, P, S, Fe, Pb, Cu and Zn in litter increase with time during decomposition. However, these relationships are empirical and have not been fully explained. The concentration of K normally decreases with time until it reaches a minimum value, and, then, it slowly increases, probably due to the fact that K is the most mobile element among all plant nutrients and its leaching may start as soon as the trees shed their leaves. Mg is another mobile nutrient and its leaching pattern is similar to that of K, though at a slower pace. Ca concentration usually increases in the early stage of decomposition until it reaches a maximum value, and then it decreases. The concentration of Mn, in contrast to most of the other elements, decreases almost linearly throughout the decomposition process.
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Global Change and Forest Soils
Evelyne Thiffault , in Developments in Soil Science, 2019
Abstract
The boreal forest is a circumpolar zone governed by climate and characterized by strong seasonal variation. It encompasses more than 30% of the Earth's forests and a significant portion of remaining intact forest landscapes. On geological scales, glacial and postglacial events have shaped the development of boreal ecosystems. The boreal zone is also driven by natural disturbance regimes that influence biogeochemical cycling and landscape composition. Most of the boreal forest is spread among only a small number of countries, but is subjected to different kinds of human activities, including logging and mining. Impacts of climate change are likely to be pronounced in the boreal forest, with projected increases in both temperature and aridity. Of particular concern is the effect of climate change on the capacity of boreal soils to act as carbon sinks, the potential release of carbon currently stored in frozen soils, and the cumulative effects of human activities and climate on the resilience of boreal ecosystems. At the same time, boreal forests hold a significant potential for climate change mitigation through carbon sequestration and carbon substitution by harvested wood products.
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Global Change and Forest Soils
Viktor J. Bruckman , Jukka Pumpanen , in Developments in Soil Science, 2019
Boreal forests
Boreal forests cover approximately 11% of the terrestrial land surface ( Sabine et al., 2004; see also Chapter 5), however, there are few studies that have investigated the effect of biochar on the soil organic matter pool in boreal forest soils. Earlier studies investigated the effects of biochar on soil C turnover and CO2 emissions, but the responses have not been consistent. Positive, negative, and null effects have been observed (Bruckman et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2016; Sackett et al., 2015; Hawthorne et al., 2017; Wardle et al., 2008; Zhou et al., 2017). We suggest that the long-term effects of biochar application can be predicted based on studies of natural fire-derived char. Char is one of the oldest fractions of soil C even when compared with the most protected C in soil aggregates and organo-mineral complexes (Pessenda et al., 2001) and can remain in soil for thousands of years (Kuzyakov et al., 2009). This is particularly important in boreal soils given their global importance as a reservoir of organic C. Boreal forests contain about 60% of the C bound in global forest biomes (Kasischke, 2000). Furthermore, about 1.1%–1.5% of boreal forests burn each year (Köster et al., 2014), releasing a large fraction of soil C to the atmosphere (Kulmala et al., 2014; Certini, 2005). Simultaneously, organic C and N in SOM are partly combusted and turned to PCM and "black N"; both being resistant to decomposition or mineralization (Knicker, 2007; Fig. 17.4). The implications of these 'opposing' processes (combustion loss vs. char additions) are difficult to interpret; although even a small change in boreal soil C stocks may alter the global C sink, currently amounting to about 1 Pg C yr−1 or 11% of the fossil fuel C emissions, into a source with a consequent increase in atmospheric CO2 concentrations (Pachauri and Reisinger, 2007). For example, a decrease of 10% in SOC would be equivalent to all the anthropogenic CO2 emitted in 30 years (Kirschbaum, 2000). If fire frequency in boreal forest ecosystems increases as a result of climate warming (Kelly et al., 2013), any anticipated increases in char production and use will help offset the net C loss.
Fig. 17.4. (A): Wildfires are common in boreal forests. This image shows a burned log on a forest site in Northern Finland at the Värriö Subarctic Research Station where the last fire occurred 160 years ago. (B): A layer of char (1–2 cm) has formed during the last (and possibly earlier fire events) fire. It is situated in the transition zone between organic and mineral topsoil horizon of a typical podzol profile. Despite being an indicator for the recalcitrance of char, it also shows that integration in topsoil horizon occurs slowly in boreal forest systems.
The amount of char in boreal forests ranges between 0.02 and 3.4 kg C m−2 (Soucémarianadin et al., 2014; Soucémarianadin et al., 2015; Czimczik et al., 2005; Kane et al., 2010; Guggenberger et al., 2008), but the amounts are highly variable due to methodological differences and soil variability. The primary factors affecting char formation are the quantity and type of biomass and fire severity. Lower amounts of char are produced in high-severity fires compared to fires with low or moderate severity (Maestrini et al., 2017) as higher temperatures lead to more complete combustion and, hence, less char. In addition, topography affects the formation of char. For example, warm, south-facing slopes have less total soil organic C, but larger char amounts as compared to north-facing slopes (Kane et al., 2007); assuming similar fire history, severity, and vegetation communities. Char incorporated into the surface mineral soil on south-facing slopes is more protected from subsequent wildfires than it would be on north-facing slopes where the char is located in the deep surface organic horizons.
Palviainen et al. (2018) studied the effects of biochar on soil C pools and CO2 fluxes two years after biochar amendment in boreal Pinus sylvestris forest stands in Southern Finland. The biochar was produced from wood chips made from P. abies at two different pyrolysis temperatures (500 °C and 650 °C) and applied at 5 and 10 Mg ha−1. Comparisons with an untreated control showed no effect of biochar addition on CO2 efflux regardless of biochar production temperature or application rate. At the same study site, Zhao et al. (2018) found that biochar significantly increased SOC stock and C:N, but did not affect soil C turnover rate. This suggests, in the short-term, that biochar amendments did not increases soil CO2 emissions in boreal forests or stimulate microbial activity leading to greater decomposition of native SOM (i.e., no 'priming' effect). This is promising from the point of view of C sequestration in boreal forest soils.
Unlike the study from southern Finland, others have found that biochar can enhance soil microbial activity and plant growth (Lehmann et al., 2011; Lindén et al., 2014), effectively increasing the amount of organic C available for microbial-based decomposition and CO2 release (Wang et al., 2016; Cross and Sohi, 2011). Wardle et al. (2008) showed that char produced during forest fires promotes the loss of forest humus and belowground C, probably due to the positive effect on soil microbes. These feedback mechanisms have been poorly characterized and require further stuy to help evaluate the C sequestration potential of biochar and char. The productivity of boreal forests is often limited by plant-available N. Several studies have shown an increase in ammonification and nitrification after biochar amendment (Anderson et al., 2011; Case et al., 2015). Biochar has also been shown to increase soil N mineralization rates and soil ammonium (NH4) concentration, with little impact on nitrate (NO3) concentration, soil microbe populations, or soil respiration in boreal forests (Gundale et al., 2016).
Biological N fixation is an important process providing plant-available N in boreal forest ecosystems (Sponseller et al., 2016). Epiphytic cyanobacteria on feather mosses and free-living N-fixing bacteria are particularly important sources of N in these systems (Limmer and Drake, 1996; Zackrisson et al., 2004). Biochar effects on N-fixation rates are not well studied, although Palviainen et al. (2018), using the acetylene reduction method, observed no significant differences in N fixation between biochar plots and untreated control plots.
The application of biochar to forest soil may also have negative effects on the nutrient availability and, consequently, on early plant growth following application if the added biochar adsorbs plant-available NO3 − and NH4 + (and other nutrient ions). This effect appears to vary by plant species (Cornwell et al., 2008), however, Gundale et al. (2016) found that biochar additions decreased plant species richness in a Swedish boreal forest even while mean biomass increased 40%. Similarly, Bieser and Thomas (2019) found that biochar amendments led to a significant change in herbaceous species composition in a boreal forest, which is of particular interest in regeneration management, but cautioned that co-amendment of contaminants, such as heavy metals could be a concern for the operational use of biochar. Again, more studies involving a wider range of sites, types and amounts of biochar, and plant species are needed before a complete understanding of biochar effects on nutrient availability is possible.
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Boreal Forest Ecosystems
Jennie R. McLaren , Roy Turkington , in Encyclopedia of Biodiversity (Second Edition), 2013
Animals
The boreal forest is home to many animals. It is the winter home of the migratory caribou and reindeer and the permanent home of many others. The wolf and lynx are the major predators of the boreal forest. Some of the best examples of population cycles in animals are described from the boreal forest regions; for example, lynx ( Lynx canadensis), snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus), arctic ground squirrels (Spermophylus parryi), red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonius), and boreal red-backed vole (Clethrionomys rutilus) in northern Canada and microtine rodents, owls, capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus), black grouse (Tetrao tetrix), mountain hare (Lepus timidus), and red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in Eurasia. The causal relationships of these cycles have not been fully explained but many of the North American examples are synchronized with the snowshoe hare cycle, and Eurasian examples are synchronized with microtine rodent cycles.
In North America, other inhabitants of the boreal forest include moose, black bear, grizzly bear, deer, wolverine, coyote, marten, beaver, porcupine, sable, voles of the genus Microtus, chipmunks, shrews, and bats. Typical animals of the boreal forest vary slightly more from location to location than do the plants. The moose which browse on willow, birch, alder, and water plants, and the beaver which feeds on aspen, are widespread. Many birds also inhabit the boreal forest; for example, great horned owl, goshawk, spruce grouse, ruffed grouse, nuthatchers, juncos, and warblers. Brown bears inhabit the boreal forest in Eurasia.
In the boreal zone of Eurasia, the diversity of mammalian herbivores is highest in the interior of the continent and declines to the east. Across Eurasia, species richness of mammalian herbivores is positively correlated to warm climate, the number of hardwood species, and the area of the boreal forest. Across North America, species richness of mammalian herbivores increases as the length of the growing season and the number of coniferous tree species increase (Figure 5). Given this information, it appears that indirect measures of primary productivity as well as the number of tree species can accurately predict species richness of mammalian herbivores. Bird diversity decreases from west to east across both the North American boreal forests and the Eurasian boreal forests. In Fennoscandia the diversity of forest birds decreases northwards; in Finland, this occurs only in pine forests and not in spruce.
Figure 5. The number of mammalian herbivore species along a gradient from west to east (zones 1–9 across Europe and Asia and zones 1–12 across North America). Note the decline in species number as the continents meet at the Bering Strait (Adapted from Danell K, Lundberg P, and Niemela P (1996) Species richness in mammalian herbivores: Patterns in the boreal zone. Ecography 19: 404–409.).
It seems that the boreal forests of Canada, and possibly Russia, differ from those in northern Fennoscandia in that small herbivore biomasses reach much higher levels and are dominated by species of hare rather than voles. In addition, the densities of many fewer species in the boreal forests of Canada are correlated with the dominant herbivore relative to the situation in Fennoscandia.
Tree death and decaying wood provide a variety of habitats for an enormous number of invertebrates. For example, in Sweden approximately 1000 species of beetle are dependent on dead trees. The most diverse fauna on snags is found during the first 2 years after the tree has died. Spruce logs have a more diverse invertebrate fauna than pine, but many invertebrates can inhabit both. Four typical stages in the succession of invertebrates on spruce logs in boreal forests have been described. Initial colonization is by bark beetles and other primary cambial eaters along with their associated parasitoids, predators, and detritivores. Subsequent stages have been described in detail by Esseen et al. (1997).
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Global Change and Forest Soils
Hugh D. Safford , V. Ramón Vallejo , in Developments in Soil Science, 2019
Climate, vegetation, soils, and human history
Boreal forests (also referred to as "taiga") occupy approximately 11% of the earth's surface and are found principally in Russia, Canada, Alaska (US) and Fennoscandia, mostly between 45° and 70° latitude. The boreal forest southern boundary approximates the 18 °C mean July isotherm, while the northern boundary approximates the 13° mean July isotherm (Bonan and Shugart,; 1989, Soja et al. 2007). Boreal forests support the bulk of the world's soil organic carbon stocks (Davidson and Janssens, 2006; Gauthier, 2015), and through their effect on high latitude albedo, they exert the greatest biogeophysical effect of all biomes on the global mean temperature (Bonan, 2008). Mean annual precipitation is often surprisingly low (<900 mm/yr in most cases and often less than half of that, especially in continental sites), but low temperatures and high cloud cover lead to low evaporative stress (Binkley and Fisher, 2012). Snow cover persists at least five months in the southern boreal forest, and seven to eight months further north (Shugart et al., 1992). Most boreal forests are found in Köppen's Dfc climate regime, where the mean temperature of the warmest month is ≥10° but <22°, and mean of the coldest month is ≤−3°, while precipitation is relatively evenly distributed through the year (usually with a summer maximum). Some southern boreal sites can be warmer than this, and some locations can have more seasonal precipitation.
Due to difficult growing conditions – cold temperatures, short growing season, acidic often saturated soils, permafrost – woody vegetation is simple and dominated by a few cold-hardy taxa. Typical to any region are a few species of conifer trees in the genera Picea, Pinus, Abies, and Larix, broadleaf deciduous trees in the genera Betula, Populus, Alnus, and Salix, and shrubs in the genera Vaccinium, Empetrum, and other cold-hardy genera. Species distributions are often extensive due to high habitat connectivity across large areas of subdued topography (Shugart et al., 1992). For example, the Eurasian species Pinus sylvestris is the most widely distributed pine in the world, and Populus tremuloides, quaking aspen, is the most widespread tree in North America. Forest productivity in boreal forests is usually correlated with soil temperature and depth. Soil temperature is driven by slope and aspect. Warmer soils increase biological activity and decomposition, releasing more nutrients and permitting faster and more sustained plant growth. As a result, cool (north-facing) slopes and basins that pool cold air tend to support lower biomass than warm (south-facing) slopes. River terraces and floodplains are also sites of high forest productivity, due to the general lack of permafrost and repeated disturbance and sediment deposition (Shugart et al., 1992). Soil depth can vary widely on the landscape, from thin, rocky or sandy soils supporting open woodlands of pines (and often broadleaf species in the south [Fig. 12.2A – left]), to deep, moist to saturated soils supporting high organic content and dense forests of spruce (Fig. 12.2C).
Fig. 12.2. Boreal forest heterogeneity. (A) Forest variation across a soil toposequence, from a granite hillock dominated by open Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), to moderately deep, more organic soils in a swale, supporting a mixture of Scots pine and Norway spruce (Picea abies); such sites are focus areas for thinning and prescribed fire treatments to prevent or stall stand homogenization due to spruce ingrowth; to the right of the photo the forest transitions to a dense spruce forest; Åland, Finland. (B) Traditionally managed stand of Norway spruce with scattered Scots pine near Uppsala, Sweden; both planting and thinning have taken place in this stand, note how the forest understory has been "cleaned". (C) Structurally heterogeneous, multi-aged Norway spruce forest where fallen trees have been left for ecological purposes; Åland, Finland. Photos H. Safford. (D) Mixed boreal forest on granitic inceptisols (Populus tremula, Betula sp., Abies sibirica, Picea obovata, Pinus sibirica, Larix sibirica), fir mortality caused by Polygraphus beetle attack; Stolby Nature Reserve, Krasnoyarsk, Siberia. (E) Mixed boreal forest (Betula neoalaskana, Populus tremuloides, Picea glauca, Populus balsamifera) west of Fairbanks, Alaska; the high density of deciduous broadleaf trees on the landscape is due to a 35-year old fire, the forest will succeed to a spruce forest in the absence of further disturbance.
Photo (D) V.R. Vallejo. (G) Hayward.From 30%–40% of boreal forests are underlain by permafrost, and many boreal soils are water saturated for at least part of the growing season (Zimov et al., 2006; Price et al., 2013). Well-drained soils occur on higher landforms, or where local processes (windthrow, treefall, growth of Sphagnum mounds) raise the growing surface above the water table. Soils typically include thick O horizons, with well-developed humus layers overlain by moss and lichens. Generally speaking, boreal forest soils tend to be spodosols, histosols, gelisols, or inceptisols (Soil Survey Staff, 1999). Spodosols form under heath or forest vegetation in sandy or coarse-loamy soils, they are acidic and of low fertility. These soils form in well-drained locations or locations where the groundwater levels fluctuate seasonally. In spodosols, organic acids produced in litter decomposition lead to mineral leaching from an eluviated horizon and redeposition of clay and Al and Fe sesquioxides below in the so-called spodic horizon. Histosols are acidic, organic soils that form when fallen plant material decomposes more slowly than it accumulates. This is a common condition in ±permanently saturated soils found in bogs, fens, moors, and other peatlands. Gelisols are formed where permafrost is found near the soil surface. These soils may be permanently frozen or they may seasonally thaw. Cryoturbation and freeze-thaw cycles are important processes in gelisols. Gelisols can support cold-hardy forests (e.g., of Picea or Larix) if the soil active layer is deep enough (Soil Survey Staff, 1999; Binkley and Fisher, 2012). The inceptisol soil order includes young soils in which pedogenic processes are incipient or have been slowed. In boreal regions, this is often caused by periodic or long-term flooding.
Humans have only been major players in the boreal zone since the end of the last ice age. Human settlement of Fennoscandia and northwestern most Russia began as glacial ice retreated during the Early Holocene, and occurred as boreal plant taxa migrated west and north to reoccupy land lost to glacial advance tens of thousands of years earlier; use and clearing of the forest became more intensive as metallurgy and farming were developed (Blankholm et al., 2017). Most of north-central and northeastern Russia, on the other hand, escaped glaciation and human interaction with the boreal forest has a much longer history there. In North America, humans arrived from northeastern Asia along the shores of the Bering Strait and Arctic Ocean about 15,000 years ago, and migrated inland as soon as glacial recession permitted (Goebel et al., 2008); the earliest records of humans on the Canadian east coast are from about 10,000 years ago. Today, the world's boreal regions are among the least-densely populated on earth, with densities ranging from 0.5 people per km2 (Alaska) to 20/km2 (Sweden) and huge swaths of forest remain. The major modern human disturbance to boreal forest is in the form of large-scale industrial logging.
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Boreal Forest Ecosystems
Roy Turkington , in Encyclopedia of Biodiversity, 2001
III. Soils
Boreal forest soils are typically low in fertility and acidic, with a thin A horizon. The most characteristic soils are podzols. However, podzols occur in a wide range of climates, not only in boreal regions, and not all boreal regions are underlain by podzols. Climate, vegetation type, chemical composition of the substrate material, and topography are the major environmental influences that produce the typical boreal podzol. The combination of low temperatures and low pH impede decomposition processes and slow the rate of soil development. The soil surface may be covered by a mat of spruce needles up to 3–7 kg/m2. This mat of acid, partly decomposed plant material is the mor litter layer. The slow but gradual decomposition of this layer continually releases a supply of organic acids that contribute to the leaching of organic particles and mineral ions (primarily iron and aluminum) from the surface soils and to the weathering of the parent material. In addition, soluble materials such as sodium, potassium, and calcium are washed out of the soil by water movement. As a consequence, the surface soils are relatively infertile and high in silica. In many cases in which the process of podzolization is prominent, the upper soil layers are gray or whitish in color. Beneath the leached layer is a zone in which materials leached downward by water accumulate, chiefly iron–humus complexes. These deposits may be cemented into a hardpan, sometimes thick and strong enough to prevent root penetration to the lower soils. In the more extreme boreal forest climates the subsoil is permanently frozen (the permafrost). The combination of nutrients being largely tied up in the litter layer, an infertile A horizon, hardpans and permafrost results in most boreal forest trees having a shallow root network.
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